Philippine Lit Essay

Literature and history are closely interrelated. In discovering the history of a race, the feelings, aspirations, customs and traditions of a people are sure to be included . . . and these feelings, aspirations, customs and traditions that are written is literature. History can also be written and this too, is literature. Events that can be written down are part of true literature. Literature, therefore, is part of history. Literature and history, however, also have differences. Literature may be figments of the imagination or events devoid of truth that have been written down, while history is made up of events that really happened. The Pre-Spanish Period Long before the Spaniard and other foreigners landed on Philippine shores, our forefathers already had their own literature stamped in the history of our race. Our ancient literature shows our customs and traditions in everyday life as trace in our folk stories, old plays and short stories. Our ancestors also had their own alphabet which was different from that brought by the Spaniards. The first alphabet used by our ancestors was similar to that of the Malayo-Polynesian alphabet. Whatever record our ancestors left were either burned by the Spanish friars in the belief that they were works of the devil or were written on materials that easily perished, like the barks of trees, dried leaves and bamboo cylinders which could not have remained undestroyed even if efforts were made to preserve them. Other records that remained showed folk songs that proved existence of a native culture truly our own. Some of these were passed on by word of mouth till they reached the hands of some publishers or printers who took interest in printing the manuscripts of the ancient Filipinos. The Spaniards who came to the Philippines tried to prove that our ancestors were really fond of poetry, songs, stories, riddles and proverbs which we still enjoy today and which serve to show to generations the true culture of our people. Pre-Spanish Literature is characterized by A. LEGENDS. Legends are a form of prose the common theme of which is about the origin of a thing, place, location or name. The events are imaginary, devoid of truth and unbelievable. Old Filipino customs are reflected in these legends. Its aim is to entertain. Here is an example of a legend is THE LEGEND OF THE TAGALOGS. B. FOLK TALES. Folk tales are made up of stories about life, adventure, love, horror and humor where one can derive lessons about life. These are useful to us because they help us appreciate our environment, evaluate our personalities and improve our perspectives in life. An example of this is THE MOON AND THE SUN. C. THE EPIC AGE. Epics are long narrative poems in which a series of heroic achievements or events, usually of a hero, are dealt with at length. Nobody can determine which epics are the oldest because in their translations from other languages, even in English and Spanish. We can only determine their origins from the time mentioned in the said epics. Aside from the aforementioned epics, there are still other epics that can be read and studied like the following epics. a. Bidasari-Moro epic b. Biag ni Lam-ang-Ilokano epic c. Maragtas-Visayan epic d. Haraya-Visayan epic e. Lagda-Visayan epic f. Epigrams, Riddles, Chants, Maxims, Proverbs or Sayings 1. Epigrams (Salawikain). These have been customarily used and served as laws or rules on good behavior by our ancestors. To others, these are like allegories or parables that impart lessons for the young. 2. Riddles (Bugtong) or Palaisipan. These are made up of one or more measured lines with rhyme and may consist of four to 12 syllables. 3. Chant (Bulong). Used in witchcraft or enchantment. 4. Maxims. Some are rhyming couplets with verses of 5, 6 or 8 syllables, each line having the same number of syllables. 5. Sayings (Kasabihan). Often used in teasing or to comment on a person’s actuations. 6. Sawikain (Sayings with no hidden meanings) The Spanish Period (1565-1898) It is an accepted belief that the Spanish colonization of the Philippines started in 1565 during the time of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, the first Spanish governor-general in the Philippines. Literature started to flourish during his time. This spurt continued unabated until the Cavite Revolt in 1872. The Spaniards colonized the Philippines for more than three centuries. During these times, many changes occurred in the lives of Filipinos. They embraced the Catholic religion, changed their names, and were baptized. Their lifestyles changed too. They built houses mad of stones and bricks, used beautiful furniture like the piano and used kitchen utensils. Carriages, trains and boats were used as means of travel. They held fiestas to honor the saints, the pope and the governors. They had cockfights, horse races and the theater as means of recreation. This gave rise to the formation of the different classes of society like the rich and the landlords. Some Filipinos finished courses like medicine, law, agriculture and teaching.

The Main Problems of Lexicography

The main problems of lexicography The most burning issues of lexicography are connected with the selection of head-words, the arrangement and contents of the vocabulary entry, the principles of sense definitions and the semantic and functional classification of words. In the first place it is the problem of how far a general descriptive dictionary, whether unilingual or bilingual, should admit the historical element. In fact, the term â€Å"current usage† is disconcertingly elastic, it may, for instance, be stretched to include all words and senses used by W.Shakespeare, as he is commonly read, or include only those of the fossilised words that are kept in some set expressions or familiar quotations, e. g. shuffled off this mortal coil (â€Å"Hamlet†), where coil means ‘turmoil’ (of life). For the purpose of a dictionary, which must not be too bulky, selection between scientific and technical terms is also a very important task. It is a debatable point whet her a unilingual explanatory dictionary should strive to cover all the words of the language, including neologisms, nonce-words, slang, etc. nd note with impartial accuracy all the words actually used by English people; or whether, as the great English lexicographer of the 18th century Samuel Johnson used to think, it should be preceptive, and (viewed from the other side) prohibitive. Dictionary-makers should attempt to improve and stabilise the English vocabulary according to the best classical samples and advise the readers on preferable usage. A distinctly modern criterion in selection of entries is the frequency of the words to be included. This is especially important for certain lines of practical work in preparing graded elementary textbooks.When the problem of selection is settled, there is the question as to which of the selected units have the right to a separate entry and which are to be included under one common head-word. These are, in other words, the questions of sepa rateness and sameness of words. The first deals with syntagmatic boundaries of word-units and has to solve such questions as whether each other is a group of two separate words to be treated separately under the head-words each and other, or whether each other is a unit deserving a special entry (compare also: one another).Need such combinations as boiling point, carbon paper, department store, phone box be sub-entered under their constituents? If so, under which of them? Or, perhaps, it will be more convenient for those who use the dictionary if these were placed as separate main entries consisting of a nominal compound or a phrase. As to the sameness, this deals with paradigmatic boundaries. How many entries are justified for hound'? COD has two — one for the noun, and the other for the verb: ‘to chase (as) with hounds’; the verb and the noun are thus treated as homonyms. Chambers’s Twentieth Century Dictionary† combines them under one head-word, i . e. it takes them as variants of the same word (hence the term â€Å"sameness†). The problem is even more complicated with variants belonging to the same part of speech. This problem is best illustrated by the pun that has already been discussed elsewhere in this book: Mind you, I don’t mind minding the children if the children mind me (Understand, I don’t object to taking care of the children if the children obey me). Here the dictionary-maker is confronted with the problem of sameness.Should mind be considered one word with several semantic variants, and take one entry? Or is it more convenient to represent it as several words? The difference in the number of entries for an equal bulk of vocabulary may also depend on a different approach to the regularly formed derivatives, like those with -er, -ing, -ness, and -ly. These are similar to grammatical endings in their combining possibilities and semantic regularity. The derivation is so regular, and the meaning and class of these derivatives are so easily deduced that they are sometimes sidered not worth an entry.That is why the definition of the scope of a dictionary is not quite as simple as it might appear at first sight. There exist almost unsurmountable difficulties to a neat statistical evaluation. Some publishers state the number of entries in a subtitle, others even claim for the total coverage with the exception of very special terms. It must be remembered, however, that without a generally accepted standard for settling the problems of sameness and separateness no meaningful evaluation of the scope of any particular dictionary is possible.Besides in the case of a living language the vocabulary is not stable, and the attitude of lexicographers to archaisms and neologisms varies. The arrangement of the vocabulary entry presents many problems, of which the most important are the differentiation and the sequence of various meanings of a polysemantic word. A historical dictionary (the Oxford Dictionary, for instance) is primarily concerned with the development of the English vocabulary. It arranges various senses chronologically, first comes the etymology, then the earliest meanings marked by the label obs. — obsolete.The etymologies are either comparative or confined to a single language. The development is documented by illustrative quotations, ranging from the oldest to recent appearances of the word in question. A descriptive dictionary dealing with current usage has to face its own specific problems. It has to apply a structural point of view and give precedence to the most important meanings. But how is the most important meaning determined upon? So far each compiler was guided by his own personal preference. An objective procedure would be to obtain data of statistical counts.But counting the frequency of different meanings of the same word is far more difficult than counting the frequency of its forms. It is therefore not by chance that up to now many counts have been undertaken only for word forms, irrespective of meaning. Also, the interdependence of meanings and their relative importance within the semantic structure of the word do not remain the same. They change almost incessantly, so that the task of establishing their relative frequency would have to be repeated very often. The constant revisions necessary would make the publication of dictionaries very expensive.It may also be argued that an arrangement of meanings according to frequency would sometimes conceal the ties and relationship between various elements of the semantic structure. Nevertheless some semantic counts have been achieved and the lexicographers profited by them. Thus, in preparing high-school English dictionaries the staff under chief editor C. L. Barnhart was aided by semantic counts which Dr E. L. Thorndike had made of current standard literature, from children’s books to â€Å"The Encyclopaedia Britannica†. The count according to C. L. Barnhart was of enormous importance in compiling their dictionaries, but the lexicographer admits that counts are only one of the criteria necessary for selecting meanings and entries, and that more dictionary evidence is needed, namely typical quotations for each meaning. Dictionary evidence normally exists in the form of quotation slips constituting raw material for word treatment and filed under their appropriate head-words. In editing new dictionaries the lexicographers cannot depend only on the scholarly editions such as OED.In order to meet the demands of their readers, they have to sample the reading of the public for whom the dictionary is meant. This textual reference has to be scrupulously examined, so as to account for new words and meanings making their way into the language. Here again some quantitative criteria must be established. If a word or meaning occurs in several different sources over a wide range of magazines and books during a considerable period of time, it may be worth including even into a college dictionary.The preface to â€Å"The Concise Oxford Dictionary†, for instance, states that its authors find that sense development cannot be presented in every word, because obsolete words are as a rule omitted. Only occasionally do they place at the beginning a rare but still current sense, if it can throw light on the more common senses that follow, or forms the connecting link with the etymology. The etymologies are given throughout, but otherwise the compilers do not seem to keep to any consistent principle and are guided by what they think is the order of logical connection, familiarity or importance.E. L. Thorndike formulates the following principles: â€Å"Other things being equal, literal uses come before figurative, general uses before special, common uses before rare, and easily understandable uses before difficult, and to sum up: that arrangement is best for any word which helps the learner most. † A synchronic di ctionary should also show the distribution of every word. It has been traditionally done by labelling words as belonging to a certain part of speech, and by noting some special cases of grammatically or lexically bound meanings.Thus, the word spin is labelled in â€Å"The Concise Oxford Dictionary† as v. t. & i. , which gives a general idea of its distribution; its various senses are shown in connection with words that may serve as subject or object, e. g. : â€Å"2. (of spider, silkworm, etc. ) make (web, gossamer, cocoon, or abs. ) by extrusion of fine viscous thread †¦ 10. spun glass (spun when heated into filaments that remain pliant when cold); spun gold, silver (gold, silver thread prepared for weaving †¦ ). † This technique is gradually being improved upon, and compilers strive to provide more detailed information on these points. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary †¦ † by A. S. Hornby, E. V. Gatenby and H. Wakefield supplies informati on on the syntactical distribution of each verb. In their â€Å"Notes on Syntax† the compilers state that one who is learning English as a foreign language is apt to form sentences by analogy, which at times may lead him into error. For instance, the student must be warned against taking the use of the verb tell in the sentence Please tell me the meaning as a model for the word explain, because *Please, explain me the meaning would be ungrammatical. For his purpose they provide a table of 25 verb patterns and supply the numerical indications in each verb entry. This gives the student the necessary guidance. Indications are also supplied as to which nouns and which semantic varieties of nouns may be used in the plural. This helps the student to avoid mistakes like *interesting informations. Many dictionaries indicate the different stylistic levels to which the words belong: colloquial, technical, poetical, rhetorical, archaic, familiar, vulgar or slang, and their expressive co louring: emphatic, ironical, diminutive, facetious.This is important, because a mere definition does not show these data. There is always a difference in style between the dictionary word and its definition. The word digs is a slang word but its definition ‘lodgings’ is not. Giving these data modern dictionary-makers strive to indicate the nature of the context in which the word may occur. The problem is also relevant for bilingual dictionaries and is carefully presented in the â€Å"New English-Russian Dictionary† edited by I. R. Galperin. A third group of lexicographic problems is the problem of definitions in a unilingual dictionary.The explanation of meaning may be achieved by a group of synonyms which together give a fairly general idea; but one synonym is never sufficient for the purpose, because no absolute synonyms exist. Besides, if synonyms are the only type of explanation used, the reader will be placed in a vicious circle of synonymic references, with not a single word actually explained. Definitions serve the purpose much better. These are of two main types. If they are only concerned with words as speech material, the definition is called linguistic. If they are concerned with things for which the words are names, they are termed encyclopaedic.American dictionaries are for the most part traditionally encyclopaedic, which accounts for so much attention paid to graphic illustration. They furnish their readers with far more information about facts and things than their British counterparts, which are more linguistic and more fundamentally occupied with purely lexical data (as contrasted to r e a 1 i a), with the grammatical properties of words, their components, their stylistic features, etc. Opinions differ upon the optimum proportion of linguistic and encyclopaedic material.Very interesting considerations on this subject are due to Alf Sommerfeldt. He thinks that definitions must be based on the fact that the meanings of words render complex notions which may be analysed (cf. componental analysis) into several elements rendered by other words. He emphasises, for instance, that the word pedestrian is more aptly defined as ‘a person who goes or travels on foot’ than as ‘one who goes or travels on foot’. The remark appears valuable, because a definition of this type shows the lexico-grammatical type to which the word belongs and consequently its distribution.It also helps to reveal the system of the vocabulary. Much too often, however, one sees in dictionaries no attention paid to the difference in distribution between the defined and the defining word. The meaning of the word may be also explained by examples, i. e. contextually. The term and its definition are here fused. For example, diagonal is explained by the following context where only this term can occur: A square has two diagonals, and each of them divides the square into two right-angled isosceles triangles. Very often th is type can be changed into a standard form, i. . A diagonal is one of the two lines †¦ , etc. One more problem is the problem of whether all entries should be defined or whether it is possible to have the so-called â€Å"run-ons† for derivative words in which the root-form is readily recognised (such as absolutely or resolutely). In fact, whereas resolutely may be conveniently given as a -ly run-on after resolute, there is a meaning problem for absolutely. One must take into consideration that in colloquial speech absolutely means ‘quite so’, ‘yes’ which cannot be deduced from the meaning of the corresponding adjective.HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH AND AMERICAN LEXICOGRAPHY Although, as we have seen from the preceding paragraph, there is as yet no coherent doctrine in English lexicography, its richness and variety are everywhere admitted and appreciated. Its history is in its way one of the most remarkable developments in linguistics, and i s therefore worthy of special attention. In the following pages a short outline of its various phases is given. A need for a dictionary or glossary has been felt in the cultural growth of many civilised peoples at a fairly early period.The history of dictionary-making for the English language goes as far back as the Old English period where its first traces are found in the form of glosses of religious books with interlinear translation from Latin. Regular bilingual English-Latin dictionaries were already in existence in the 15th century. The unilingual dictionary is a comparatively recent type. The first unilingual English dictionary, explaining words by English equivalents, appeared in 1604. It was meant to explain difficult words occurring in books.Its title was â€Å"A Table Alphabeticall, containing and teaching the true writing and understanding of hard usuall English words borrowed from the Hebrew, Greeke, Latine or French†. The little volume of 120 pages explaining ab out 3000 words was compiled by one Robert Cawdrey, a schoolmaster. Other books followed, each longer than the preceding one. The first attempt at a dictionary including all the words of the language, not only the difficult ones, was made by Nathaniel Bailey who in 1721 published the first edition of his â€Å"Universal Etymological English Dictionary†.He was the first to include pronunciation and etymology. Big explanatory dictionaries were created in France and Italy before they appeared for the English language. Learned academies on the continent had been established to preserve the purity of their respective languages. This was also the purpose of Dr Samuel Johnson’s famous Dictionary published in 1755. 1 The idea of purity involved a tendency to oppose change, and S. Johnson’s Dictionary was meant to establish the English language in its classical form, to preserve it in all its glory as used by J. Dryden, A.Pope, J. Addison and their contemporaries. In conf ormity with the social order of his time, S. Johnson attempted to â€Å"fix† and regulate English. This was the period of much discussion about the necessity of â€Å"purifying† and â€Å"fixing† English, and S. Johnson wrote that every change was undesirable, even a change for the best. When his work was accomplished, however, he had to admit he had been wrong and confessed in his preface that â€Å"no dictionary of a living tongue can ever be perfect, since while it is hastening to publication, some words are budding and some falling away†.The most important innovation of S. Johnson’s Dictionary was the introduction of illustrations of the meanings of the words â€Å"by examples from the best writers†, as had been done before him in the dictionary of the French Academy. Since then such illustrations have become a â€Å"sine qua non† in lexicography; S. Johnson, however, only mentioned the authors and never gave any specific referenc es for his quotations. Most probably he reproduced some of his quotations from memory, not always very exactly, which would have been unthinkable in modern lexicology.The definitions he gave were often very ingenious. He was called â€Å"a skilful definer†, but sometimes he preferred to give way to sarcasm or humour and did not hesitate to be partial in his definitions. The epithet he gave to lexicographer, for instance, is famous even in our time: a lexicographer was ‘a writer of dictionaries, a harmless drudge †¦ ’. The dictionary dealt with separate words only, almost no set expressions were entered. Pronunciation was not marked, because S.Johnson was keenly aware of the wide variety of the English pronunciation and thought it impossible to set up a standard there; he paid attention only to those aspects of vocabulary where he believed he could improve linguistic usage. S. Johnson’s influence was tremendous. He remained the unquestionable authority on style and diction for more than 75 years. The result was a lofty bookish style which received the name of â€Å"Johnsonian† or â€Å"Johnsonese†. As to pronunciation, attention was turned to it somewhat later. A pronouncing dictionary that must be mentioned first was published in 1780 by Thomas Sheridan, grandfather of the great dramatist.In 1791 appeared â€Å"The Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language† by John Walker, an actor. The vogue of this second dictionary was very great, and in later publications Walker’s pronunciations were inserted into S. Johnson’s text — a further step to a unilingual dictionary in its present-day form. The Golden Age of English lexicography began in the last quarter of the 19th century when the English Philological Society started work on compiling what is now known as â€Å"The Oxford English Dictionary† (OED), but was originally named â€Å"New English Dictionary on Historical Principles†.It is still occasionally referred to as NED. The purpose of this monumental work is to trace the development of English words from their form in Old English, and if they were not found in Old English, to show when they were introduced into the language, and also to show the development of each meaning and its historical relation to other meanings of the same word. For words and meanings which have become obsolete the date of the latest occurrence is given. All this is done by means of dated quotations ranging from the oldest to recent appearances of the words in question.The English of G. Chaucer, of the â€Å"Bible† and of W. Shakespeare is given as much attention as that of the most modern authors. The dictionary includes spellings, pronunciations and detailed etymologies. The completion of the work required more than 75 years. The result is a kind of encyclopaedia of language used not only for reference purposes but also as a basis for lexicol ogical research. The lexicographic concept here is very different from the prescriptive tradition of Dr S. Johnson: the lexicographer is the objective recorder of the language.The purpose of OED, as stated by its editors, has nothing to do with prescription or proscription of any kind. The conception of this new type of dictionary was born in a discussion at the English Philological Society. It was suggested by Frederick Furnivall, later its second titular editor, to Richard Trench, the author of the first book on lexicology of the English language. Richard Trench read before the society his paper â€Å"On Some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries†, and that was how the big enterprise was started.At once the Philological Society set to work to gather the material, volunteers offered to help by collecting quotations. Dictionary-making became a sort of national enterprise. A special committee prepared a list of books to be read and assigned them to the volunteers, sending t hem also special standard slips for quotations. By 1881 the number of readers was 800, and they sent in many thousands of slips. The tremendous amount of work done by these volunteers testifies to the keen interest the English take in their language.The first part of the Dictionary appeared in 1884 and the last in 1928. Later it was issued in twelve volumes and in order to accommodate new words a three volume Supplement was issued in 1933. These volumes were revised in the seventies. Nearly all the material of the original Supplement was retained and a large body of the most recent accessions to the English language added. The principles, structure and scope of â€Å"The Oxford English Dictionary†, its merits and demerits are discussed in the most comprehensive treaty by L. V. Malakhovsky. Its prestige is enormous.It is considered superior to corresponding major dictionaries for other languages. The Oxford University Press published different abridged versions. â€Å"The Sho rter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles† formerly appeared in two volumes, now printed on thinner paper it is bound in one volume of 2,538 pages. It differs from the complete edition in that it contains a smaller number of quotations. It keeps to all the main principles of historical presentation and covers not only the current literary and colloquial English but also its previous stages.Words are defined and illustrated with key quotations. â€Å"The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English† was first published in 1911, i. e. before the work on the main version was completed. It is not a historical dictionary but one of current usage. A still shorter form is â€Å"The Pocket Oxford Dictionary†. Another big dictionary, also created by joined effort of enthusiasts, is Joseph Wright’s â€Å"English Dialect Dictionary†. Before this dictionary could be started upon, a thorough study of English dialects had to be completed.With this a im in view W. W. Skeat, famous for his â€Å"Etymological English Dictionary† founded the English Dialect Society as far back as 1873. Dialects are of great importance for the historical study of the language. In the 19th century they were very pronounced though now they are almost disappearing. The Society existed till 1896 and issued 80 publications, mostly monographs. Curiously enough, the first American dictionary of the English language was compiled by a man whose name was also Samuel Johnson. Samuel Johnson Jr. a Connecticut schoolmaster, published in 1798 a small book entitled â€Å"A School Dictionary†. This book was followed in 1800 by another dictionary by the same author, which showed already some signs of Americanisation. It included, for instance, words like tomahawk and wampum, borrowed into English from the Indian languages. It was Noah Webster, universally considered to be the father of American lexicography, who emphatically broke away from English idi om, and embodied in his book the specifically American usage of his time.His great work, â€Å"The American Dictionary of the English Language†, appeared in two volumes in 1828 and later sustained numerous revised and enlarged editions. In many respects N. Webster follows the lead of Dr S. Johnson (the British lexicographer). But he has also improved and corrected many of S. Johnson’s etymologies and his definitions are often more exact. N. Webster attempted to simplify the spelling and pronunciation that were current in the USA of the period. He devoted many years to the collection of words and the preparation of more accurate definitions. N.Webster realised the importance of language for the development of a nation, and devoted his energy to giving the American English the status of an independent language, distinct from British English. At that time the idea was progressive as it helped the unification of separate states into one federation. The tendency became reac tionary later on, when some modern linguists like H. Mencken shaped it into the theory of a separate American language, not only different from British English, but surpassing it in efficiency and therefore deserving to dominate and supersede all the languages of the world.Even if we keep within purely linguistic or purely lexical concepts, we shall readily see that the difference is not so great as to warrant American English the rank of a separate language, not a variant of English (see p. 265). The set of morphemes is the same. Some words have acquired a new meaning on American soil and this meaning has or has not penetrated into British English. Other words kept their earlier meanings that are obsolete and not used in Great Britain. As civilisation progressed different names were given to new inventions on either side of the Atlantic. Words were borrowed from different Indian languages and from Spanish.All these had to be recorded in a dictionary and so accounted for the existen ce of specific American lexicography. The world of today with its ever-growing efficiency and intensity of communication and personal contacts, with its press, radio and television creates conditions which tend to foster not an isolation of dialects and variants but, on the contrary, their mutual penetration and integration. Later on, the title â€Å"International Dictionary of the English Language† was adopted, and in the latest edition not Americanisms but words not used in America (Britishisms) are marked off.N. Webster’s dictionary enjoyed great popularity from its first editions. This popularity was due not only to the accuracy and clarity of definitions but also to the richness of additional information of encyclopaedic character, which had become a tradition in American lexicography. As a dictionary N. Webster’s book aims to treat the entire vocabulary of the language providing definitions, pronunciation and etymology. As an encyclopaedia it gives explana tions about things named, including scientific and technical subjects.It does so more concisely than a full-scale encyclopaedia, but it is worthy of note that the definitions are as a rule up-to-date and rigorous scientifically. Soon after N. Webster’s death two printers and booksellers of Massachusetts, George and Charles Merriam, secured the rights of his dictionary from his family and started the publication of revised single volume editions under the name â€Å"Merriam-Webster†. The staff working for the modern editions is a big institution numbering hundreds of specialists in different branches of human activity.It is important to note that the name â€Å"Webster† may be attached for publicity’s sake by anyone to any dictionary. Many publishers concerned with their profits have taken this opportunity to issue dictionaries called â€Å"Webster’s†. Some of the books so named are cheaply-made reprints of old editions, others are said to be entirely new works. The practice of advertising by coupling N. Webster’s name to a dictionary which has no connection with him, continues up to the present day. A complete revision of N. Webster’s dictionary is achieved with a certain degree of regularity.The recent â€Å"Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language† has called forth much comment, both favourable and unfavourable. It has been greatly changed as compared with the previous edition, in word selection as well as in other matters. The emphasis is on the present-day state of the language. The number of illustrative quotations is increased. To accommodate the great number of new words and meanings without increasing the bulk of the volume, the editors excluded much encyclopaedic material.The other great American dictionaries are the â€Å"Century Dictionary†, first completed in 1891; â€Å"Funk and Wagnalls New Standard Dictionary†, first completed in 1895; the â€Å"Random House Dictionary of the English Language†, completed in 1967; â€Å"The Heritage Illustrated Dictionary of the English Language†, first published in 1969, and C. L. Barnhart’s et al. â€Å"The World Book Dictionary† presenting a synchronic review of the language in the 20th century. The first three continue to appear in variously named subsequent editions including abridged versions.Many small handy popular dictionaries for office, school and home use are prepared to meet the demand in reference books on spelling, pronunciation, meaning and usage. An adequate idea of the dictionaries cannot be formed from a mere description and it is no substitute for actually using them. To conclude we would like to mention that for a specialist in linguistics and a teacher of foreign languages systematic work with a good dictionary in conjunction with his reading is an absolute necessity.

Coffee and Tea Essay

Coffee and tea have existed in the world for a long time. Hundreds of years ago, people who lived in South America started to produce coffee, but the earliest drink likes coffee was made by ancient Arabian. They thought it was a kind of medicine used for stomach. After the 15th century, coffee was spread to other countries such as Egypt and Ottoman Empire by Muslims who were back from Hajj, while in ancient China, Chinese people started to make tea about 3000 years ago. Because of nice environment and weather, the first part of tea plants was discovered in southwest China. After, drink tea became an important culture of Chinese people, and tea began to spread into countries near China. Coffee and tea are similar, but different in some specific area. First, coffee and tea are similar but different in population. People from all around the world like them. For example, British people used to drink a cup of tea with some snacks when they have a rest in the afternoon. Western people enjoy drinking black tea, and some of them mix it with milk to make milky tea. Likewise, most people like drinking coffee, for it often tastes good. In China, more and more people began to drink coffee, and some of whom want to taste better coffee like blue mountain coffee. However, although these two drinks are both popular around the world, coffee is still drunk most by western people, while the most quantity of tea is used in East Asia. People lived in China, Japan, and Korea regarded tea as the main drink. Second, coffee and tea are similar but different in function. Both coffee and tea can refresh people because there is a kind of chemical matter, which is caffeine in both of them. This chemical matter can be used for nerves to make a person feel awake and lively. Also, some experts said that black coffee and green tea can help a person lose weight. But, in contrast, tea has some more functions due to another kind of chemical matter which can’t be found in coffee. This chemical matter that named tea polyphenol whose ability is to relieve the effect that is made by poison. Finally, coffee and tea have similarity and difference in origination. Both of them are made from plants. Thousands of years ago, people lived in Africa planted coffee trees in succeed, and now, Brazil has the most coffee trees in the world. In south of China, there are a lot of terraced fields that grow tea trees. On the other hand, people use leaves from tea to make tea, while they use fruits from coffee plants to make coffee. To sum up, coffee and tea are similar in their population, function, and origination, while they are different of their use in different place, their different chemical matter, and their different material. I suggest that people should drink both coffee and tea so that they can be healthier.

Financial Analysis of the Company Diageo Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Financial Analysis of the Company Diageo - Essay Example This essay stresses that Diageo is a leading firm which is spread globally and conducts premium drinks business with a varied collection of outstanding labels. Diageo is mainly concentrated in business regarding beverages. The firm, based in UK, manufactures its products in different countries of the world like Britain, Ireland, United States, Canada, Spain, Italy, Africa, Latin America, Australia, India, and the Caribbean. Based on research, it is seen that they sell their products approximately in 180 markets throughout the world. Diageo is an established firm and, thus, has its own authority in the production and sale of wine. Diageo manages 17 out of 100 of the top world’s spirit brands. The firm emphasizes its prime focus on developing its international brands in order to capture a giant market share. Diageo is listed in the London Stock Exchange (DGE) and for its American depositary receipts it is also listed on the New York Stock Exchange (DEO). This paper makes a conclusion that sales, accounts receivable and number of days outstanding or the turnover ratio provides a more or less indication of the firm’s current and future prospects. Economic recession has negatively impacted on the customer’s confidence and, thus, this has brought about a little negative diversion in business and its profits. â€Å"Diageo strength has driven competitive advantage in premiumisation†. Diageo faces competition from small and artisan wineries which also pose a greater threat to its market. An increasing competition from other drinks outside the wine industry is another threat for Diageo. Analysis of the Key Personnel within the Company: Diageo has more than 20000 talented people working with the firm. Diageo has a diverse workforce which corresponds to its widespread network throughout the globe. The staff of Diageo is committed in serving their customers, as customer satisfaction is the highest priority for Diego. The pr ime motto among employees is ‘

Health Care Reform (OBAMA) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Health Care Reform (OBAMA) - Essay Example These two bills were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ObamaCare) that was signed into law by President Obama on March 23rd, 2010. The second bill was the Health care and Education Reconciliation Act, which was also signed into law by President Obama on March 30th, 2010. There are further reforms intended for the future and have been proposed including a reduction fee for service medical care and single payer system. This paper seeks to discuss the impact of the two-abovementioned legislations on healthcare on doctors, coverage, access, costs, employees and its impact on businesses. A major characteristic of ObamaCare is that it is primarily targeted at low and middle-income families and businesses. ObamaCare also contains some obstacles for high earners, larger firms that do not insure their employees and certain sectors of the healthcare industry (Carrigan 81). As with any other law, ObamaCare poses a lot of benefits and gains for the average American and little disad vantages. High-income earners might criticize ObamaCare and large corporation for targeting them in what might seem a witch-hunt against corporate America. However, this is in an effort to cushion the average American who is at disadvantage because of their meagre income and they cannot afford health insurance. As an insured adult with an uninsured 22-year-old child, the new healthcare reforms are an added advantage. This is because it increases access and coverage for healthcare insurance and increased the maximum age for coverage from 22 years to 26 years (Carrigan 77). Through ObamaCare, insured adults with uninsured young adults as dependants will experience extended covers for up to the age of 26 years of age for the dependants (Ciocchetti np). This will result in an 82% increase in the number of insured adults through the availability and accessibility of low cost insurance and the availability of free healthcare insurance for qualifying adults. This new legislation will see t o the introduction of new rights and protection characteristic of guaranteed coverage for pre-existing conditions and the elimination of gender discrimination in the health care system (Carrigan 80). Despite that fact that medical insurance premiums are set to be higher, the quality of medical insurance will be of guaranteed quality and standard for all registered individuals. Obamacare will make it possible for millions of people to access affordable and quality medical health insurance through the marketplace (Ciocchetti np). This will be a boost to low income earners who did not have access to health insurance because it was inaccessible. The cost of healthcare will increase because of the widened coverage criteria, which will result in higher premiums for some sections of society. The cost implications of the healthcare reform will not affect me because I belong to the category being shielded by the legislation. This will be through increased coverage and access. ObamaCare is bo und to have different impacts on employees and employers, with some benefiting more than others. Their employers guarantee them a mandatory coverage over the period of tenure as employees of any firm. Small and medium scale enterprises and businesses will get tax credits for up to 50% of their employees’ health care insurance premium costs (Carrigan 78). This will translate to better working conditions and

Compare and Contrast between Saudi Arabia and USA Essay

Compare and Contrast between Saudi Arabia and USA - Essay Example In the education system, there are similarities and equal differences between America and Saudi Arabia. Indeed, the similarities manifest in freedom to choose institutions of learning, governments spending and provision of education for all including those with special needs. The differences manifest in literacy levels, stages of education, gender roles, role of religion, and attitude towards education. In fact, in both countries, education is a major priority and as such both governments allocates huge resources to the education sector. To this extent, both governments finances general education for both boys and girls, accords financial assistance to needy students and offers free post-secondary education to all. At the same time, both governments provide many learning institutions that are well equipped to allow for specialization and high quality education (Sedgwick, 2008). In addition, students in both countries are at liberty to choose the school or universities where they can join public, private, or home school. Furthermore, both countries create an enabling and competitive environment for the provision of education to students with special needs. ... In fact, in both countries, education is a major priority and as such both governments allocates huge resources to the education sector. To this extent, both governments finances general education for both boys and girls, accords financial assistance to needy students and offers free post-secondary education to all. At the same time, both governments provide many learning institutions that are well equipped to allow for specialization and high quality education (Sedgwick, 2008). In addition, students in both countries are at liberty to choose the school or universities where they can join public, private, or home school. Furthermore, both countries create an enabling and competitive environment for the provision of education to students with special needs. Nevertheless, there are huge disparities in the running of education systems between the two nations. Indeed, the level of attitude towards education varies in that while in America education attendance is mandatory, education atte ndance is a matter of choice in Saudi Arabia. Actually, education is uniform at primary and secondary levels.  In addition, the aspect of religion plays part in Saudi Arabian education system and has no effect in American education system. Actually, education in Saudi Arabia relates with religion where the school curriculum follows sharia law and Qur'an teachings. The issue of gender brings a huge difference between the two education systems. Saudi Arabia practices sex segregation according to sharia law thus offering single-sex schools while America offers multi-sex schools (U.S. Network for Education Information, 2001). Uniquely is the fact that though education is universal for both genders in America giving

Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative studies Coursework

Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative studies - Coursework Example Qualitative study focuses more on getting detailed information about the subject whereas quantitative study focuses more on gathering data using large-scale surveys. Interviewing a focus group is one of the best examples of a qualitative study in which researchers interview a group and identify the thoughts and perceptions of that group. DiCicco-Bloom and Crabtree (2006) states, â€Å"Interviews are among the most familiar strategies for collecting qualitative data†. In qualitative studies, researchers make use of different data collecting techniques to explore attitudes and behaviors of people whereas in quantitative research, researchers use structured research instruments like large-scale surveys to know what people think about the research topic. In qualitative studies, researchers collect data using interviews, group discussions, and task oriented observations whereas in quantitative studies, the methods used for collecting data include observing large groups and surveyin g specific types of individuals. Therefore, we can say that there are more techniques available in qualitative studies for data development as compared to the techniques available in quantitative studies. Relationship with the Research  Researchers doing qualitative study are not much aware of the details that makes them interact personally with people to gather information related to different aspects of the research. For example, to get information regarding effects of diabetes on a person’s health, the researchers need to interact.

The Dark Face of the Earth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Dark Face of the Earth - Essay Example The authoress makes an attention-grabbing role reversal in the play since the female is in the place of power and Augustus is suberserviant to her instead of the other way round. The play begins with Amalia giving birth to a black child as a result of her affair with a slave. However, the complexity was her situation compels her into giving her baby to another plantation. As years pass by, she changes in a tyrant because of constant dissatisfaction and heartbreaks. Then Augustus arrives on the plantation, bound in chains and seduced by his owner. The play is filled with clever turnings which fills it with suspense until the tragic ending. Each word of Aristotle’s definition of tragedy qualifies for an essay. According to him, every tragedy comprises of six components, namely: plot, characters, diction, thought, melody/songs and spectacle. For him, a good tragedy is in which the actions and motives of the protagonist drive his actions to the extent that it stimulates dread and compassion among the audience. This play’s theatrical success seems to be indicative of the fact that characters managed to successfully arise sympathy and apprehension in the audience. Tragedy is the portrayal men in action not simply men. Character exposes the motives, preferences and reactions, which according to Aristotle are more essential than thought (Carlisle). In the darker face of the world, the hero, Augustus is seen as: the savior of the slaves, a smart and educated fellow who has seen the outside world. Although, Amalia was determined not to give him up but she had to as he was biracial, which ingrained a sense of injustice in him. Since he was raised by an English captain on a ship so Augustus unlike the other African slaves does not believe in religion or heritage and disdains their superstitious thinking. Due to his strong headed attitude, leadership attributes and desire for freedom seems an ideal to lead the freedom movement. This paints a realistic and true to life picture of the pre-civil war condition of slaves in America and makes the character closer to reality. Eventually as he grabs and agonizes with Amalia, he accomplishes his goal of murdering the plantation owner and thus liberating the black slaves from the tyrannical rule. This is also highlights the face that the circumstances that led to the ending of Augustus were greatly impacted by external factors like ethnocentric issues (Harris). Phebe, born on the plantation is a resilient yet loving, loyal and intellectual woman who adored Augustus even though their attitudes are categorically opposite. However, Augustus like majority of black men who after receiving the admiration of their own kind develop a preference for white women is also inclined towards Amalia. â€Å"A man who is not eminently good and just yet whose misfortune is not brought by vice or depravity but by some error of frailty†, this line by Aristotle defines what constitutes a tragic hero in his sight (Aristotle). The affair between Amalia and Hector was not under the protagonist’s control. We cannot blame him for developing a prejudiced and unjust attitude in consideration of his miserable parentless childhood. Similarly, unaware of his mother’s identity and getting seduced by Amalia was natural. However indulging in the private pursuit of pleasure and committing murders direct out

Logistics and Operations Management - The World Trade Organization Assignment

Logistics and Operations Management - The World Trade Organization - Assignment Example These negotiations were held under GATT or General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. In the present times, there are new negotiations that the WTO is involved into under the ‘Doha Development Agenda’ instigated in the year 2001 (Understanding the WTO - Who we are, 2012). Countries, in general, encounter several challenges and problems while performing activities of trade across different countries. Thus negotiations and effective rules are required that are maintained by the WTO. Also, trade barriers are maintained by the rules that are set by the WTO, helping to protect consumers of such trade activities (Understanding the WTO - Who we are, 2012). The present study focuses on the work of the WTO and to analyze the impact that it has on world trade. Thus the study would analyze the outcomes of the various summits that have taken place since the end of the Second World War and consider the impact they have had on world trade. For this particular study, interpretivism research philosophy has been found to be applicable for this particular research study as it combines diverse approaches together and tries to understand the world as it is experienced (Collins, 2010, pp.38-39). The study has been based on qualitative research technique that involves the description of the types and qualities of people or events without expressing them in the form of numerical figures (Thomas, 2003, pp.1-2). The collection of data for the study has been dependent on secondary sources, thus involving sources that present studies and findings of earlier researchers and information that are already available concerning the topic of study (Malhotra, 2008, p.106). Thus books and authenticated internet articles, the website of WTO have been included in this study to learn about the works of the WTO, and their effects on world trade. While including such study materials, ethical factors have also been kept significantly under focus and the credibility of the sources have also been checked.  Ã‚  

Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 101

Summary - Essay Example The variables under investigation were the social capital and public engagement in public affairs, both of which are necessary in strengthening the responsiveness of civil societies and political institutions. These factors are necessary in maintaining healthy democracies in the society. The research method was a direct survey using online questionnaires; respondents were asked questions regarding the use of social networks to obtain news and the effects that the news obtained had on their knowledge and participation in political issues. To increase the response rate, a monetary incentive was used; participants were entered in a draw where they could win monetary prizes. The variables under investigation were social capital, offline political participation, civic participation, social demographic variables, use of media news, use of social networks for news and general social network use. In each variable, respondents were asked questions regarding their behaviors in using social net works and the effects that these had on the respondents. The research revealed that public use of news in social networks had a direct effect in increasing the social capital significantly. In other words, the use of social networks to keep up with news on issues affecting the community had a positive effect on the social capital. Moreover, the research revealed that the use of social network sites for news improved public participation in the society, which led to increased participation in political discussions, online and offline. As such, people who get informed through social sites tended to participate more in issues affecting the community, with such participation leading to new information seeking behavior. The researchers recommended the investigation of the effects of the socio-economic characteristics of the communities in which respondents live. This will lead to an understanding of the extent to which social economic differences may affect

Energy Resource Challenges Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Energy Resource Challenges - Essay Example Thirdly, author mentions liquid fuels and the practice of turning food into fuel. For instance the cellulose in corn is used to produce ethanol. However, at present, there is a shift from the use of food grains to that of the stalks and stubble left after harvest, thus not compromising on the loss of grains to the generation of power. The National Renewable Energy Lab uses a plant to turn leftovers from the harvest and many other non-usable things into energy. Finally, the author talks about the use of wood chips to generate power. Nevertheless, despite the fact that renewable energy sources have several advantages, there are also a few challenges to their effective use. For instance, in the case of solar power, a solar concentrator is required which may be difficult to keep ones backyard. Also, in the United States, the cost for energy is very low and hence the renewable energy industry faces stiff competition from fossil fuels. Thirdly, in order to make a difference with renewable sources of energy, it has to be on a large scale. Lastly, there is also a lack of urgency with regard to the utilization of renewable sources of energy. One form of renewable energy not mentioned in the video is Hydroelectricity, in which water is harnessed for generating energy.

Collective empowerment Essay Example for Free

Collective empowerment Essay â€Å"To find out about my life. The truth. In the end. That’s all. † Nadine Gordimer’s 11th novel heroine, Vera Stark, takes over the hearts of literary critiques as she goes through the course of transition taking place in post-apartheid South Africa and in herself. â€Å"None to accompany me† is yet another Nadine Gordimer literary masterpiece that explores the dramatic effect of a country to an individual’s change on a personal level. The novel opens with Vera’s infidelity to her first husband; and as the story advances and she ages, she assesses her life and gains a new perspective on her relationship with her second husband, Bennett. Meanwhile, she tries to understand her daughter’s case on being a lesbian and why her husband pretends not to notice. Here, we see her struggle with her private feelings while engaged in civic issues where she had difficulty dealing with â€Å"relationships for which there was no preexisting formula of hostility or friendship, suspicion or trust. Note that the novel takes place in post-apartheid South Africa there’s been a radical change in social boundaries therefore, making it difficult to contend black interests. As Gordimer says, â€Å"When a railway line is abandoned, the tracks arent taken up. ; the railway referring to prejudiced white South Africans. Put in simpler terms, changing the law is one thing but changing the people’s attitude is another. Being a wife and a mother, a political activist and a lover, Stark’s sensible and sensual character reflects the author’s to some degree. Even her course of life takes resemblance to Gordimer’s: Vera Stark, a graduate of legal studies, becomes head of a Legal Institution established as a â€Å"reaction against the blackness of the black community, fights back the system with its own tricks. She will become the living example of how the collapse of an old regime allows us perhaps to abandon our old self. Maybe abandon an old personal life, too. Indeed, she will gradually see everything around her changing radically, and as consequences provoke other consequences, she will almost lose her life, after a murder attempt against her which will bring her face to face with the face of death, she will experience the fall of the frenzied racism monster as well as the transition towards a new regime with new supporters, ready like the others before them to be corrupted, the unjustified violence and the extreme poverty, she will revaluate her own existence, as a mother, as a companion and as a woman, she will watch her friends changing, she will be fascinated by the leader of the Black People and she will endure all these hardships with the stoicism of wisdom† (Nadine Gordimer on Vera Stark, â€Å"None to accompany me†); Likewise, Gordimer holds record for being a political activist throughout her lifetime and joined, as well as led, several organizations both legal and illegal that expressed her concerns on moral and r acial issues, especially the apartheid in South Africa. Meanwhile, the novel’s secondary characters put an intriguing twist to the story, somehow blending in whilst telling a story of their own: Veras second husband Bennet, a supposed sculptor downgraded to selling prestige luggage to provide for her; their son Ivan, a London banker, and their lesbian daughter, Annie, a South African doctor; Didymus and his wife Sibongile (Sally) Maqoma, Vera’s black friends who returned from exile after the apartheid; their lovely daughter Mpho, half-Zulu, half-Xhosa, whose been raised in London; Veras co-worker Oupa, former prisoner on Robber Island, who has big hopes and plans for South Africa; and Zeph Rapulana, one of the new black men with the skills and personal power to help makes such dreams come true. Gordimer’s portrayal of each minor character’s image was brief but delightfully vivid. Also, despite being the lead character in the novel, two lives are actually examined throughout besides Stark’s, thereâ€℠¢s Sally Maqona. After returning to South Africa from exile, she and her husband were received as heroes, for being part of the principal revolutionaries during the apartheid. However, an unexpected exchange in roles between the couple happened: Didymus, the male, was set aside the big picture for being a traditionalist whereas Sibongile, his wife, was selected to join high-profile politicians as she was regarded as one of the intellects and the most suitable to represent the new South Africa. Gordimer smoothly showed how these separate lives worked out how both women and their husbands are involved in taking down the apartheid system, and at the same time, how they handled more personal issues: a teen daughter’s pregnancy, the death of a co-worker, a son’s divorce, their own marital commitment, new employment and shifting friendships. All these are set in a growing complex political entity wherein each individual must somehow fit or adjust their identity. â€Å"Is there ever a really fair division of labour, as you call it, between couples? Vera’s daughter, Annie, asks her. Perhaps the answer to this question lies in the novel itself but then again, it’s uncertain will it be a yes or a no? Traditionally, so to speak, men take over positions dominating women. In this case however, one might find it amusing that it is the females holding the so-called ‘superior’ position instead of her husband, Sally is voted to preside over the board and even Vera has taken a seat amongst high-ranking officials. Moreover, I find it noteworthy to mention Vera’s alacritous acceptance of her daughter’s homosexuality at one part, she defends the merits of the male genitalia to her newly announced lesbian daughter. With such circumstances at hand, one wonders whether this novel was written to be intentionally inclined to feministic views or it’s just how it was meant to go. Nonetheless, this has nothing to do with Gordimer; in point of fact, she’s against sexism, racism, and the like as evident from her reactions in real life encounters. As to the novel’s setting, Gordimer’s ardent description of the South African post-apartheid is written in such a way as if meant to bring the reader inside the story itself. She highlights South Africa’s torment from racial discrimination and social division a glimpse of its ‘heterotopia’. Through Gordimer, one can not only see the narrative illustration presented but feel it, too, through the characters. It’s even more intense than reading a newspaper headliner, so to say. There’s no wonder Gordimer was able to come up with an excellent novel: she has ever since been a political activist in South Africa, expressing her thoughts through outstanding literary pieces concerning relevant issues facing the locals, and even being active in the anti-apartheid movement she joined the African National Congress during the days when it was still illegal. Her works dealt greatly with political issues, especially those of her own country, and love entwined with the lives of ordinary people. She’s won various awards through the decades including the 1991 Nobel Prize for Literature because her contribution is, in the words of Alfred Nobel, â€Å"of very great benefit to humanity†. All of her works are based from her own personal record, being one articulate witness of the contemporary world her country’s in, with a hinge of imagination reality and fiction combined. With â€Å"None to accompany me†, Nadine Gordimer certainly outdid herself this time a recollection of her previous notable works combined with a near-perfect replica of her own private life and personal beliefs on the inadequate development of her country: analphabetism and semi-alphabetism, poverty, racism, and the transition from the racist regime to the democratic state among others. Further additional concepts she used cover spatial control as a mark of repression and as an emphasis of political resistance, and a vague reference on South African urbanization. This particular flair of hers is quite remarkable, Gordimer is one of the few capable of delivering a composition where realpolitik meets the inner self it’s complex, intense, intriguing, and definitely fascinating. Regardless of recent reviews saying that her style of unfolding the narrative is more urgent compared to her earlier pieces, they commend her for keeping the ‘magic’ still. Her narrative form is unique to her she does it with sophistication and boldness; she writes what is there and she writes it with utmost comprehension and solemnity. Down to the last word, this read will leave you in awe. â€Å"It is not enough for someone to say that he is a writer. He must do what he can! †, so she says. The new South Africa that is evolving right now is coming to terms with the various repressions and discriminations it did in the past. South Africa is now freeing itself from the vestiges of apartheid and at the same time unmasking apartheid as it takes in different forms not only in society but in the hearts of its citizens. While apartheid is now officially denounced, there are still traces of it in many of its structures and apartheid still exists in the internal structures of culture and individual consciousness. One must be able to weed out apartheid inside one’s own heart even if the mind says you have already rid of it conceptually. There are practices and bad habits that are hard to break. Apartheid still exists in subliminal forms. The true affirmation and sense of self worth still needs to be developed. Collective empowerment still needs to be done on the structural level. This means poverty eradication, women empowerment, literacy programs, and economic programs that would provide labor and a genuine sense of self worth. In the area of economics, there should be access to opportunity and privilege not only for the white and the rich but also for the majority poor and the black. In the political level, the voice of the majority still needs to be heard and well represented. In the area of culture, there still needs to be a radical break from the past and a birth of a totally new culture that would define South Africa on a new level of its accomplishments and not its sins from the past.

The Objectives Of Human Resources Development

The Objectives Of Human Resources Development The objectives of this report are to look at the Human Resource Management (HRM), Human Resource Planning and Development (HRP D), and Performance of McDonalds restaurant. Furthermore, it explains the human resource management activities, models of human resource management, effectiveness of organisational objectives, performance monitoring of McDonalds restaurant. The human resources of any organisation are the most important resource that is the direct connected between the quality of the workforce and ultimate goals. The human resource department of McDonalds is responsible for right people, right number, right jobs, right time, right cost with right knowledge, skills, experience in the right place and also responsible for training of all staff and keeping evidence on them. It also indicates us what is the usage of human resource management and how does it work in the company. McDonalds fast food restaurant began in America in 1954. It is leading food service retailer around the world with more than 30,000 restaurants in 119 countries serving 47 million customers each day. Moreover, McDonalds is one of the world most well-known and valuable brands and increasing share in the globally. Now it is recognised worldwide establishment and first restaurant in the UK. Today more than 2.6 million people of the UK trust about McDonalds and go to eat due to provide good food with a high standard, quick service and value of money. Task-1 Human Resource Management (HRM) Human resource management is the people management function where organizational function is fulfilled and focuses on the issues related to people for example compensation, performance management, organization development, safety, benefits, employee motivation, communication, administration ,training and, etc. As defined by Storey in 1995, HRM is a distinctive approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic development of a highly committed and capable workforce, using an integrated array of cultural, structural and personnel techniques. Human Resource Management (HRM) Activities Human Resource Management (HRM) deals with the Human feature of an organisation. There are many activities of an organisation to achieve their ultimate goals. To cite an example Recruitment and selection, training and development, human resource planning, provision of contracts, provision of fair treatment, provision of equal opportunities, assessing performance of employees, employee counseling, employee welfare, payment and reward of employees, health and safety, dismissals and redundancy, and etc. I am explaining three of them as below Recruitment and Selection In an organization, a change happens in the level of employees where HR department maintain the requirement of personnel to meet the demand. For effective recruiting, recruitment process can be costly and takes a great deal of time to set up. It includes on what jobs needs, advertising, application, identifying who best meet the criteria, interviewing candidates, finally selecting the best candidate for the post, and etc. McDonalds advertise their job vacancies on their specialized websites and use their own personnel department to recruit staff. Objectives of the Recruitment and Selection The objectives of the recruitment and selection process of human resource management are as below: To identify the most appropriate candidate to fill each post. Keep the cost of selection down Making sure that necessary skills and qualities have been specified and developing a process for identifying them in candidates Make sure that the candidate selected will want the job, and will stay with McDonalds To make the most of the effectiveness of the McDonalds recruitment and selection practices. Achievement of the Recruitment and Selection In the McDonalds, recruiting process is run throughout the year. Like other organisations, McDonalds recruit internally and externally, and they for the most part recruit their managers and Assistant managers internally rather than externally, because it is easier and less training is needed due to the candidate is well known about the job. Just about 50% of McDonalds salaried managers are promoted from within McDonalds. In addition, for preparing the job description, McDonalds describe the job title, department, location, the responsibilities, the job purpose and duties. McDonalds uses the application form with questions which are typical questions, to know what qualification the applicant has, such as knowledge, skills, experience, and etc. Application form fill-up and make the answer of question is the first step for applicant at crew member level. For the recruitment process, Interview is the most crucial part for McDonalds potential employee. From the short listed candidate, McDonalds call for interview with area manager or store manager at their flexible nearest branch. From the face to face interview, interviewers can know about applicants, such as behaves, confidence, knowledge, and basically how the applicants come across as a person. At crew member level, interview is the second step for applicant. At this step, short listed candidates involve selecting a small number of applicants for the next stage. This selecting process will be carried on until the right numbers of candidates are found with the wanted quality. As a result, the recruiting team can be able to distinguish easily the strong applicants from the weak hundreds of applicants. McDonalds inform to the successful candidate over mobile phone or by email within one week. One day, McDonalds arrange an induction for a new employee that may turn him or her into a long term, loyal member of staff. In the McDonalds, the induction process begins even before the candidate is offered the job. Training and Development From the initial training that is called skill training, Employee can know the basic job knowledge of each position and can develop. Moreover, ongoing training program provides a more advanced level of job knowledge and make an economical employee. An ongoing programme of training evaluation enables employees to keep training up to date and according to the demand of the business. McDonalds training and development programme is an important part to the 100% customer satisfaction that the company aims to achieve ultimate goal. Objectives of the Training and Development McDonalds arranges training and development programme for many reasons. For example, training and development programme may be introduced to: Increase job satisfaction and motivate employees, as a result, reducing absenteeism and labour turnover. Reduce wastage and accident rates by gaining a excellent performance across the workforce. Develop the skills of existing employees to cope with labour shortages Establish the most effective and efficient working methods in order to maximize productivity and remain competitive Use of new equipment and the application of new technology. Achievement of the Training and Development We believe that training is the foundation of any success and McDonalds think so. Immediately, training begins with a one-hour orientation in McDonalds. Each branch of McDonalds has its own video player and training room. Stepby step manuals and video tapes are played every detail of the operation. So, McDonalds is dedicated to the training and development of all their employees, providing career opportunities. So, it is an ongoing process of all McDonalds employees it is everyones job, every day. According to the employee position, all employees are to receive induction training followed by a structured development program. After completing the initial training, they are to pass one Observation Check list (OCL) in the particular area with successfully. In McDonalds has 21 days of employment probationary period. During this probationary period, employees performance is to evaluate. For example, standard of work, personal attitude, teamwork, focus of customers, hygiene and etc. After completing the probationary period, they must be achieved a competency rating of satisfactory. If they fail to meet the standards of required of performance, they can be terminated at any time during their probationary period. Human Resource Planning To achieve the McDonalds goals, human resource planning is concerned with getting the right people, using them perfectly, and training and developing them. In order to meet McDonalds aims and objectives successfully, people using are to identify perfectly and effective way and to identify any problem that are likely to occur (such as recruiting the best candidates) and then getting with proper solution. Human Resource Planning (HRP) is the process of ensuring an organisation has the correct staff at the right time, with the right skills and abilities in the right place. Objectives of the Human Resource Planning The aims of Human Resource Planning (HRP) are to create the best use of human resources look forward to the problems with surplus staff build up a well trained and flexible workers decrease organisations dependence on outside recruitment agencies Achievement of the Human Resource Planning Like all other businesses, for daily activities carry out McDonalds need the assistance of staff. All the important number of staff in McDonalds fulfils a key role in its operation. Without sophisticated technology McDonalds would not be successful, for setting up properly human being are responsible. If the manager of McDonalds do not select the potential employees in careful way and do not match against the ability of post that means who are unsuitable, it can create a number of problem, for example poor productivity levels no good feeling among staff job dissatisfaction high absenteeism levels customer complains dismissal replacement For demand of labour, McDonalds analysis its future plans and estimate the levels of activity within McDonalds. As a result, they can predict that the organisation has right number of potential employee with right quality. The external labour market is very important for any organisation because of it can make up of potential employees, locally, regionally, who have the right skills and qualification necessary at any time. For McDonalds, local unemployment figures are very important who give the indication of the general labour availability required at that time. Also, Human resource planning of McDonalds includes searching at how labour is organised within a business or an organisation. Theoretical Models of Human Resource Management Generally, human resource strategy is performance or behaviour based. In addition, employees are a main resource for any service organisation. Organisations which successfully manage change are those which have integrated their policies with their strategies and strategic change process. Johnson Scholes (1992) Exploring Corporate Strategy There are a lot of models associated within an organisation. Such as: The Fombrum, Tichy and Davanna model The Harvard model The Warwick model Guests model and etc Two models are explained among them as below: The Harvard model According to the Harvard Model, HRM polices need to derive from critical analysis of: the demands of the various stakeholders in a business and a number of situational factors Hannagan Tim, 1995 Employees are variable and valuable for any organisation. Moreover, organisations are owned and operated by various employees or people (stakeholders), the task of the management is to balance the returns to every person involved. The Harvard model emphasises on the importance of integration HR policies with business objectives. The Harvard Model is emphasised as the soft approach to HRM, employees like stakeholders of the company. In this model has discussed four areas such as, reward system, employee influences, human resource flow, and work systems, there are also included situational factors such as influence of trade unions, labour market, and laws. These are also relevant to the theory. The effectiveness of the HRM is related to the four Cs with the theory. The four Cs are Commitment, Competence, Congruence and Cost-effectiveness. According to the Harvard theory, employees are an asset rather than a cost. In McDonalds, line managers are responsible for people and store managers are responsible for the day to day running as a mixture of both the hard and soft approach. McDonalds believes that Staffs are an asset for them which are shown by training provision and should provide long term investment for the company. Guests Model Devid Guest has developed his model based on the Harvard model and included four outcomes which has developed into four policy goals Strategy integration Commitment Flexibility Quality Guests (1987) theory, is also included in McDonalds policy, Guest believes the organisation should, aim for high level of commitment from staff, obtain high quality output, continually improve standards, flexibility from staff, no fixed job definitions, working practices and conditions and seek strategic integration through HR policies. In McDonalds, improving standards continuously and flexible working times offering for staff. Line managers of McDonalds accept HRM policies and combine them into strategic plans, staff changing roles are allowing within the organisation. Acknowledged as culture, every organisation has different values, ideas and beliefs that affect the way they operate. According to Handy, there are four types of culture; Power, Role, Task and Person. McDonalds culture combines two of these. Top management of McDonalds reflects power culture that makes the overall decisions and allowing rapid response to decisions. Other one is the task culture. In McDonalds, the overall aim of the organisation is task orientated and focussing on team culture, and powerful communication between all levels of staff. McDonalds has integrated the contingency approach by considering the environment culture. Contingency approach suggests that different problems and situation require different solution, for making a sound solution, need both internal and external influences fit together. Also, this approach influences promotions of staff that comes from the company means McDonalds restaurant. It is very helpful for the staff and staffs are offered appraisals that means increasing job opportunities for staff. Task-2 Human Resource Planning and Development For a company, human resource planning is the recognition of the future labour requirements needed and how these requirements are going to be met. Human resource planning is the process by which a company ensures that it has the right number and kind of staffs, at the right time in the right place for which they are economically most useful for a company. The use of human resource planning is a big deal for any organisation. For employee develop, human resource development (HRD) is the framework. By which, employees can develop their personal and organizational skills, knowledge, and abilities. Human resource development includes many opportunities such as employee training for developing them, performance management and development, mentoring, series planning, key employee identification, organization development and etc. Human Resource Planning Model Best Practice Model Best Practice HRM is the idea that a particular bundle of HR practices has the potential to contribute to improved attitudes and behaviours, lower levels of absenteeism and labour turnover, and higher level of productivity, quality and customer service, ultimately generating higher organisational performance and profitability. Marchington Wilkinson (2002) Components of best practice include employment security and internal promotion, selective hiring and firing, extensive training, learning and development, employee involvement and voice, high compensation upon organisational performance, reduction of status differentials, etc. (Marchington Willinson, 2002; Hughes Julia M, 2002 International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management Vol.14 No.5) Effectiveness in achieving organisational objectives to Best Practice Model In McDonalds, more than 40% of senior managers have been promoted on the inside and not hired from outside directly. In the kitchen of the McDonalds restaurant, crewmembers are started their career by working at the smallest possible level of the chain of command. So, they carry out learning, training and development programs on a regular basis and lengthily which is reflected in their HR activities. McDonalds also offers high level of employment security. By implementing valuable and variable human resource activities, employee have been successful in developing dedicated and competent labour force who bring quality and customer satisfaction. By the recent market situation of McDonalds, employers can be observed easily what the condition of them is. On the other hand, according to the best practice model, employers can take long term view of strategy. In addition, from the view of personal experience, it is observed that the lowest level staffs (who work in the kitchen) generally do not have awareness of the strategy of the organisation. Also, some companys strategy is different. To cite an example, the lowest level staff of ASDA , they can give suggestion for the organisation. Their opinion senior management level can be considered or received. In additional, reward of the employee is totally appraisal based not on performance based. From the above discussion, it can be said that McDonalds is practising many components of the best practice model but do not implement full best practice model. Best-Fit (Contingency) Model There are three different models are defined under contingency as below (1) Business Life Cycle, (2) Strategy/Structure, and (3) Business Strategies (1) Business Life Cycle It includes four stages of organisational development for example, start-up, growth, maturity, and decline. This model also includes some human resource functions such as recruitment and selection, reward and benefit, staff training and improvement, employee relationships and etc with business life cycle stages. Effectiveness in achieving organisational objectives to Best Fit (Contingency) Model (Business Life Cycle) If McDonalds, want to open a new branch still today anywhere in the world, continue recruitment all around the year. (HR department, Headquarters, McDonalds) As seen earlier, Training and development has been practiced regularly and comprehensively. According to the Best fit model, during the growth stage, McDonalds recruit sufficient members and run through effective management and organisational growth. To match with HR function of an organisation, McDonalds always try to control labour costs, maintaining staff peace and getting better productivity during maturity stage. It is very difficult to say exactly that McDonalds is in which stage of Business Life Cycle but they are mature and growing at particular rate. (2) Strategy/structure Miles and Snow (1984; Cited in Bratton and Gold, 1999) identified four modes of strategic orientations: Defenders, Prospectors, Analysers, and Reactors. Defenders companies have limited product line and the management focus on getting better the efficiency of their existing operations. HR practices in defenders include extensive and long-term focus, well defined career ladders, clear grading structures, employee share ownership, well-established HR function, etc. Prospectors are companies with fairly broad product lines that focus on product innovation and market opportunities. It is right performance standards and expectations (Bratton and Gold, 1999) Effectiveness in achieving organisational objectives to Best Fit (Contingency) Model (Strategy/structure) By extensive training and development, McDonalds corporate strategy and issue want to improve their efficiency and always running to take the product into new markets. So, it can be said that McDonalds is followed the combination of Defenders and Prospectors. (3) Business Strategies (This model is based upon Porters competitive advantage model) Michael Porters (1980; cited in Bratton and Gold, 1999) formulated a framework that describes three competitive strategies: low cost leadership strategy, differentiation strategy, and focus strategy. In a differentiation strategy, managers try to distinguish their services and products-such as brand image or quality. In this way, value is added to the product and reflected in the product price. (Purcell, 1999 Human Resource management Journal Vol.9 No.3) Effectiveness in achieving organisational objectives to Best Fit (Contingency) Model (Business Strategies) By distinguishing McDonalds brand and providing quality of food and service around the world, McDonalds has achieved their present position. They have standard recruitment methods and policies, and highly focussed training and learning, reward system for staff remuneration. In McDonalds, line management function is very close with HR function, which has come from their HR strategy and activities. So, from the above discussion, it can be said that McDonalds is following differentiation strategy. Basic Human Resource Planning Model Recruit skilled workers Develop technical training programs Transfer managers from other facilities Recruiting and training programs feasible Transfers infeasible because of lack of managers with right skills Human Resource programs are made according to the organizational objectives and strategies require for achieving human resource goals. Moreover, human resource objectives are directly associated to the organizational objective and planning. To open a new branch of any company, Human Resource department need to think about production staffs, line managers, business manager, technical staffs and etc. Workforces are valuable for implementing the new product line, factory, distribution system, and achieving organizational goads. Effectiveness in achieving organizational objectives to human resource planning model HR department of McDonalds recruit skilled workers, develop technical training programs, and transfer managers from other facilities with right skills. They develop training programs regularly and broadly which are reflected in their activities. Although, employee hire is too costly from outside, sometimes, McDonalds hires the recruit managers from outside. After gaining most of things, McDonalds develop new objectives and new strategic plan for achieving ultimate goals. It involves forecasting outcome of various HR programs for employee flowing into, all the way through and out a variety of job classifications. They determine how existing program and added program or combination of program will be done and need to no capability of combining program. If HR department of McDonalds do not find practicable human resource program, they must change strategic plans. They are researched internal, external, and demand forecasting information. Such as, internal forecasting information- organizational features, productivity, promotion, demotion, transfer, turnover, and external forecasting information- external labor market aspects, controllable company factors and demand forecasting information- organizational strategic plans, size of organization, organizational design, employee support, and managerial support etc. Task-3 Performance management For the successful practices of people management, performance management is a holistic process which bringing together many elements of the organizational function. It includes particular learning and development, and gives an overview of employee status. Performance management is establishing a culture where individual and groups get responsibility for continuous development of business process and their own contributions, skill and behavior. Performance management is about interrelationships and improving the quality of relationship between manager and individual, between manager and teams, between members of teams, and etc. So, McDonalds believe that it is a joint process, not a one off-event, not just managers, apply to all employees. Therefore, McDonalds business manager can make clear what they look forward to individual and teams to do. For example, how they should be managed and what they need to do their jobs. Human Resource performance monitoring McDonalds follows the ongoing performance management for employees. For example, setting goals, monitoring the employees accomplishment of those goads, contributing feedback with the employees, evaluating the employees performance, rewarding performance or firing the employee. Performance management includes frequent activities to establish organisational aims to achieve those goad more effectively and efficiently. McDonalds believe that the best approach to accomplish value for money is to monitor the performance levels of staff and want to reduce wasteful actions. Effective Human Resource Performance By monitoring improvement, departmental managers or business managers can assess the efficiency of employees and determine which ones are meeting the terms of their agreement and contributing to McDonalds success. McDonalds monitoring is the quality of work being produced that is one of the features and the efficiency levels within departments. Employees performance helps the manager to know how they have been getting better in their business with the employees. For the future, it is an employee roadmap which increases job satisfaction. McDonalds think that it can help to develop their talent pool, support potential assessment and succession planning. Suggest ways to make improvements Sometimes, we see that poor performance lead to dismissal. If without checking, wastefulness is allowed to continue, staff will lose interest, motivation will be concentrated and no encouragement to produce good quality products or services. If the employees know that what jobs are doing, how they are doing, employees will be happier. If they know that they are doing good jobs, thats recognized, generally, they will keep on to do a good work and may make well every effort to do more. Otherwise, if they do not get people feedback, they are not doing good job, company cannot expect them to be either satisfied or productive. From the view of the company, if staffs are inefficient, customers will not return to McDonalds for repeat purchase due to many complaints and uncompleted responsibilities will push up costs to a very high figure. So, need to inform them according to responsibility.

Facilities Management Outsourcing In The UK Information Technology Essay

Facilities Management Outsourcing In The UK Information Technology Essay Chapter One served as an introduction to the dissertation, forming the motivation for the research project on the facility management outsourcing in the UK, together with a brief discussion on factors embodied in the study. Factors such as the problem, literature review; research methodology and limitations of the study are discussed. This is the appropriate theoretical paradigm of the study, the main focus of which is to specify the facility management outsoaring trend in the UK, together with related concepts. In the next paragraphs, As per research literature author discusses the definition of outsourcing, to understand the meaning of outsourcing from different views of various authors, and thus lead to conclusions of what outsourcing means. Outsourcing is the long-term results-orientated relationship with an external service provider for activities traditionally performed within the company. Burn et al., (2002) say Outsourcing usually applies to a complete business process and implies a degree of managerial control and risk on the part of the provider. Aaratunga et al.(2008) is in the favour of FM, according to him FM helps organizations as well as employees as a whole to get the full benefit by the integration of property and user related functions. It provides dynamic facilities policies which help in the generation of corporate values. It reduces the problems of space allocation and charging. In improving the environmental condition it can be a great help. Direct and contract employment can also be improved by the introduction of FM. Facility management  is an  interdisciplinary  field primarily devoted to the maintenance and care of commercial or institutional buildings, such as  hotels,  resorts,  schools,  office complexes,  sports arenas  or  convention centres. Duties may include the care of  air conditioning,  electric,power,  plumbing  and  lighting  systems;  cleaning;  decoration;  grounds keeping  and  security. Some or all of these duties can be assisted by computer programs. These duties can be thought of as non-core or support services, because they are not the primary business (taken in the broadest sense of the word) of the owner organization (Alexander, Keith, 1996). According to Barrett (1995) there are three approaches for opting the whole of FM services or part of it namely; out-sourced, in-house or a hybrid of both. The firm can choose any of the approach in order to get the FM services. The approach taken by the firm depends on the concerns or priorities already decided by the firm. In case of support providers some organizations goes for the totally in-house option, while some are in the favour of certain main services which are possible, the third type of organization is the one who uses the combination of both. Many companies have realized that in order to add value to its customers, they must single-mindedly concentrate on their core competencies and leave the running of vital, but yet time consuming and labor intensive peripheral activities to other more qualified operators confirms Sherratt (2000). 2.2. What is outsourcing Outsourcing means to have a contract with another company or person to do a particular function. Now a day almost every organization outsources some of its departments in some way. Usually, that function is being outsourced which is considered non-core to the business. Outsourcing takes many forms. Organizations still hire service providers to handle distinct business processes (Sourcingmag, 2009). Source: MacroTechs business process outsourcing model A term often used in the context of outsourcing is vertical integration. Vertical integration refers to the level of ownership of activities either backward into the supply chain or forward towards the customers or end-user of the product and service. Vertical integration is similar to the outsourcing concept in that it is concerned with the decision on whether to perform an activity internally or source it from an external supplier. Another term that is often used in manufacturing context is make-or-buy. It is arguable at make or buy is most appropriate term in context of outsourcing as it implies that there should be an evaluation of the suitability of either internal or external supply whereas the term outsourcing implies that the decision to use an external supplier has already been made without any consideration whether is it appropriate for the organization. Its necessary for the successful application of outsourcing to analyze whether it is necessary for the organization and h ow the outsourcing process should be managed (McIvor, Ronan, 2005). 2.2.1 Reasons behind outsourcing In todays business evolution, companies seek to remain strong or gain strength in an ecommerce-enabled marketplace. Likewise the factors driving outsourcing have evolved from a focus on solving financial problems to IT or certain business processes which contribute to the competitive success of an organization through enhanced capability, improved flexibility, increased efficiency or enhanced speed to market. Outsourcing has evolved from a survival tactic to a strategic competitive tool touted by even the most respected management consultants says Van Bon (2002:249). The areas which have not run on traditional lines can be introduced by the new ideas, technologies and new findings with the help of outsourcing which has a great positional in bringing the businesslike approach. It can help in upgrading the system or skills of the workers. It has a potential in bringing the reduced cost technologies by specializations and large scale economies. Outsourcing can help in upgrading the assets (Beitz,1998). Accoring to Heath (2010) outsourcing facilities management enables an organization to focus on its core business functions. Organization can gain many value-driven and many less visible benefits including:- Flexibility Increase and decrease staffing levels as needed, without having to interview, hire, or train a new employee or be forced to lay off employees when business slows. Productivity Because you are tapping into a pool of well-trained professionals who have access to the best processes, you immediately increase your productivity. Expert Assistance Rely on experts in facilities management to ensure that your company is operating efficiently and cost effectively. Better Service By having the right personnel available to handle your facility management issues, your customers will benefit as well. The cost-savings alone can make outsourcing management an attractive idea; instead of paying salary, bonuses, benefits, and taxes, as well as the administrative costs associated with those items, organization willl simply pay a flat rate that makes it easy to budget and plan. 2.2.2 Outsourcing relationship management process (the modern outsourcing model) In the new era of outsourcing, the customer regards the vendor as a long-term asset that is a source of ongoing value to the company. An asset, time and resources are dedicated to the management of a relationship, thereby maximizing its value. The customers resources are held accountable for extracting value from the outsourcing relationship. This is a more strategic approach. Good relationship management requires thought, planning, coordination and dedication of resources to be successful. Management cannot overlook the importance of this structure and its supporting processes. Good relationship management can be used to fix many ills inherent in a sourcing transaction. While this area of expertise is relatively immature, it is nonetheless important if the promise of outsourcing is to be realized concludes Van Bon (2002). Often a person called the client contract manager of an outsourcing deal is left to determine what was just negotiated after the outsourcing contract is signed. Van Bon (2002: 258) has shown that in a lot of situations this is a recipe for disaster, when it comes to realizing the benefits of outsourcing. Fortunately in todays world, organizations realize the importance of processes and a sound governance model by the time the deal is finalized. The big questions to be asked is how does one go about building into the process and how does one operate the process after an outsourcing deal is done? When an outsourcing deal has taken place, interdependency exists between the two companies. Both the vendor and the customer therefore change, as the one affects the other. Therefore both parties must understand the cost drivers of the two infrastructures and coordinate changes so as not to introduce additional costs into the process. Both the customer and the vendor must behave as an integrated supply chain rather than as win or lose adversaries. MTW (2010) found in this research that the FM market has become increasingly characterized by closer relationships between suppliers and contractors, as greater efficiencies and lower procurement costs are sought. During 2009, several FM companies established programs specifically designed to improve supplier relationships to ensure that material and equipment suppliers were aligned with customer relationship principles and accountable for their own supply chains. 2.3. Types of outsourcing For the purpose of this study and based on the area of study on which the author is focusing, there are two types of outsourcing models identified by Greaver, F. Maurice (1999):- Total outsourcing: In this type of outsourcing, organizations outsource all of their activities. It is easiest way to in the easiest way to get good results with less effort. Service provide so same things but they produce better results, mostly organization choose it as it saves money. Selective outsourcing: Some times organization does not want to outsource all the activities of an individual, function or process. In Facility Management industry if an organization wants to outsource its whole building control but keeps automated entry exit control in their own system to make sure who come in and leaves the building and when. Most successful experiences were associated with a reasoned, incremental and selective approach to outsourcing which is increasingly reflected in the structure of the market confirms Willcocks and Fitzgerald (1994). Table 2.1 Types of Outsourcing and the risks associated with them. In-house Commitment Selective Outsourcing Total Outsourcing Total Attitude Core Strategic Asset Mixed Portfolio Non-Core Necessary Cost World Class Provision Providers IT Employees Loyal to Business the Horses for Courses Vendor Strategic Partner Emphasis Value focus Value for Money Money Added Value? Dangers High Cost Insular Unresponsive Management Overhead Exploitation by Suppliers Unbalanced Risk/Reward Innovation Source: Alexander (1996) This table 2.1 shows that all arrangements have inherent risks associated with them, in addition to the above types of outsourcing, Other types of outsourcing services as defined by Glomark-Governan (2006) include Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) which involves the transfer of management and execution of one or more complete business processes or entire business functions to an external service provider. Research done by Currie and Willcocks (1997:180) concludes that most companies chose selective outsourcing. In the United States only 8% has gone total outsourcing and in the United Kingdom only 2%. This figure as low since total outsourcing is very risky. Data collected on total outsourcing indicates a 35% failure rate. With total outsourcing, vendors build in a high switching cost. Total outsourcing should be done on a joint risk-reward basis and never on a fee-for service (time and material) contract. It is recommended that re-negotiation stages be included in the original contract of big deals. 2.4 Advantages of outsourcing Turban et al. (2002) describes following advantages of outsourcing FINANCIAL Avoid heavy capital investment, thereby releasing funds for other uses Improve cash flow and cost accountability Realize cost benefits from economies of scale, and from sharing computer housing, hardware, software and personnel Release extensive office space TECHNICAL Be free to chose software due to a wider range of hardware Achieve technological improvements more easily Have greater access to technical skills MANAGEMENT Concentrate on developing and running core business activity Eliminate need to recruit and retain competent FM staff HUMAN RESOURCES Draw on specialist skills, available from a pool of expertise, when needed Enrich career development opportunities for staff QUALITY Clearly define service levels Improve performance accountability Earn quality accreditation FLEXIBILITY Respond quickly to business demands 2.5 Disadvantages of outsourcing In spite of the numerous advantages mentioned above, there can also be less desirable consequences. Most concerns are explored further (Bucki, James. 2010). Availability: The external provider is not always available full time and may be committed to other clients. Confidentiality: The vendor will probably need to keep some of the customers records off-site while simultaneously working with competitors. Cost: The customer may perceive that unit costs for the external provider are high. Termination costs of an agreement can also be very high. Perceived lack of accountability and commitment: There is a possibility that a customer can end up with a provider that does not share the risks of the client and is committed to the agreement. 2.6 Outsourcing decision making Research done by Caruso (1996) found that the decision to outsource non-core competencies takes place at corporate level in 50% of the cases. A third takes place at the divisional level and 15% at operational level. Normally other departments such as finance, Marketing and Human Resources are also involved in the decision. These departments play a significant role in the selection process. The final decision on which vendor to use is done at corporate level. Glomark-Governans (2006) also found that the finance department is involved with the cost calculations and the Human Resources department concentrates on the smooth transition of employees. The Human Resources department is also responsible for monitoring employee moral throughout the company before, during and after the outsourcing transition has taken place. The Marketing department would then explain the new strategic relationship of the company with the vendor customer and concentrate on the benefits the customer will reap from the outsourcing arrangement. Vendors should be selected based on their total capabilities, not just price or a single aspect of what they can do. References and reputation are only two of the criteria that should be used when making the final decision on which vendor to contract. A reasonable price should be negotiated and performance measures put in place. When selecting a vendor, close attention should be paid to how candidates measure up in the areas of financial strength, business experience, business development, support services and business arrangements. Willcocks et al., (1997) also found that assessing outsourcing intangible benefits also requires a careful investigation of links between the technical, the operational, and the economic effects of the benefit. The result provides a sound framework for identifying the measurable variable needed for the economic quantification. As a simple example: Technical benefit an on-line sales force Web service enables sales professionals in a company to produce reports with key content designed for executives in their accounts. Operational benefit with the new reports available, the sales representatives can increase the number of meetings with senior managers in their accounts Economic benefit an increase in meetings with senior managers will increase the close rate. The close rate (number of orders closed as a percent of proposals presented) is the measured variable that can be used to define the benefit formula (means of economic quantification). 2.7 Facilities management outsourcing Since cresting as a trend in the mid-to-late 80s, the outsourcing of facilities management has now simply become a way of doing business. In the last decade, many facilities managers have exchanged the traditional carts and hard hats for seats in boardrooms with titles like VP of capital assets or VP of real estate. At meetings, they build strong cases for maintaining existing facilities; persuading their brethren that buildings which hold their value are as important to the core mission of their organization as developing a new product or pouring millions into new research (Helene, McEntee, 2000). Facilities management has changed significantly since the early 1990s. In the early days, such tasks were decentralized. Store or district managers made service vendor selections and managed repair decisions. Often, those providing services were relatives or friends. The corporate headquarters usually had no view into facilities issues at the store level (Barrett, P.,  Baldry, D., 2003). By the mid 1990s, centralization became the norm. Major tasks, such as procurement and new construction, became centralized at the home office to achieve buying power. Centralization also found its way to facilities management. Facility maintenance departments began to grow, adding headcount to manage the needs of multiple locations while offloading tasks from onsite managers (Barrett, P. Baldry, D., 2003). By the late 1990s, web-based management solutions emerged, known as computerized maintenance management systems (CMMSs). The promise of a CMMS was the connection of all interested parties, including the store manager, facilities manager and service vendors. Unfortunately, service providers often did not have computers and the malls were not connected to the Internet, leading to system inefficiencies (Nakayama, M. Sutcliffe, N. 2005). By about 2002, affordable Internet access and the proliferation of broadband connections led to the emergence of powerful new facility management solutions. Leveraging portals and email, facilities management was embracing modern technology to improve communications and accountability (Nakayama, M. Sutcliffe, N. 2005). Blumberg (1998) presents new viewpoint to explain the FM outsourcing in terms of its positional benefits. FM outsourcing provides the organization many benefits. It helps in reducing the cost of the organization that opt it as the service provider company provides high quality services with the comparatively low cost. It is useful in improving the operating efficiency as the workload is shared. The net effect will be on the returns, they will increase and In contrast to Bloomberg (1998) and Kotabe (1992), if organization outsource its FM sector it will lead to the loss of overall market performance. He says that innovation will be neglected in case of reliance on outsourcing. When outsourcer does not want to be innovative he outsources its FM as it is much easier in contrast to indulge in innovations. The end result is the decline in the technological advancements which is the base in the innovations in the product and process. According to Nutt (1999) FM is improving the overall efficiency of the organization. It is a huge deportment in establishing values for all the facilities seekers. Corporations, individual employees, clients, operating units are the chief facilities seekers. FM is growing day by day and because of its increasing demand this market has created a much more competitive marketplace. Different types of FM companies has been established to fulfil its increasing demand such as FM contractors, professional FM institutions, FM suppliers, FM consultants and in-house FM teams. 2.8 Developing a facilities management structure Atkin, B. Brooks, A (2009) states that for the efficient and effectively management of facilities, stout strategies must be developed in the framework of organizations strategic business plan and accommodation strategy. These strategy should include development of strategic objectives and a business plan for the FM function. The process of developing a Fm strategy is demonstrated in Figure 2.2, which shows three main stages with their elements. These three stages are:- Strategic analysis Developing solutions Strategy implementation Figure 2.2 Source: Atkin, B. Brooks, A (2009) There is no single formulation of facilities management that will fit all situations. Nonetheless, the concept of the informed client function is common to all situations. Most buildings represent substantial investments for organisations and usually have to accommodate and support a range of activities in the organisations core business, for which an appropriate environment must be created in buildings that may not have been designed for the purposes for which they are now used. Yet, no matter how well focused on organisation might be on its core business, it cannot lose sight of the supporting services the non-core business. The relationship between two is shown in the figure 2.3. Organisations may have already considered the distinction between their core business and non-core business (such as security, payroll or cleaning) as part of the drive to deliver customer satisfaction and achieve best value (Atkins, Brian Brooks, Adrian, 2009). Figure 2.3Source: Atkins, Brian Brooks, Adrian (2009). 2.9 Facilities management Information Technology History of computer-aided facilities management (CAFM) dates back to the early 1960s when space forecasting and inventory applications were first run on expensive mainframe computers by people writing their own programming codes. With the passage of time architectural planning and construction project management were added to the suite of applications running on the systems shown in figure 2.4. The number of people writing their own code based on office automation software increased dramatically with the advent of smaller computers. Islands of automation introduced in the market during 1970s and 1980s, CAFM began to be used for other applications such as furniture inventory, lease management, aqsset management, and building cost accounting CMMS application such as maintenance management, cable management and security began during late 1980s and 1990s during the end of 1980s internet was introduced and it was revolution in the automated system. Many firms created their own softwares t hose fits in their organization (National research council, 2001). Figure 2.4 Space Asset CMMS (Computerized Maintenance Inventory Management Management System) 1960sà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦1970sà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦1980sà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.1990sà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..2000s Mainframe > PC Islands > CAFM > Internet Source: National research council (2001) Today facilities managers use several software tools. Each of these tools processes and stores only specific information. Only FM specific tools are included in the following list, general tools like email, workflow, word processing belong to underlying IT base support (Redlein, Alexander, 2004). Computer Aided Facility Management Systems (CAFM) Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Enterprise Resource Planning Systems (ERP) Building automated Systems (BA including security systems) Management Information system (MIS) (Business Data Warehouse Systems) As mentioned above, all of the tools are engaged in the day to day objective process. Even in one field one toll alone cannot handle or support all the needed processes. The following table 2.1 shows how the main basic processes of FM can be supported by the software systems (James, R. Watson, R., 2009):- Table 2.1 Main processes and IT support Support of CAFM ERP BA Maintenance Drawing, equipment location Maintenance contracts, cost accounting, billing Technical data, status of equipment Space Management Drawing, current user Cost accounting, transparency Technical data Tenant management Current user Tenancy agreement, rental fee Technical resources Sales / Marketing Visualization, adaptation to customers needs Information systems, calculation Available technical resources Source: National institute of building sciences Computer-aided facilities management system (CAFM) There are many Computer Aided Facility Management (CAFM) tools available today. They have become an essential tool for increasing and maintaining the efficient use of space in your buildings. As a planning tool, CAFM can help by creating trial layouts and comparing space efficiencies. CAFM helps track and control the use of assets like furniture and equipment. CAFM can help allocate asset costs to operating units and track employee movements. Many CAFM applications have options to aid in scheduling the use of shared space or maintenance routines like landscaping or snow removal. CAFM also enhances the effectiveness of facility safety and security. Following benefits could be achieved by implementing CAFM system (Teicholz, Eric, 1995) Increased Efficiency of Asset Utilization Automates space charge-backs based on your billing and reporting requirements Link architectural drawings with facilities and infrastructure data, ensuring information is always accurate Allocates space usage and reports charge-backs with accuracy to avoid external or inter-departmental billing disputes. Enterprise Resource Planning system (ERP) ERP is back office software which focuses on the key business functions of manufacturing, supply chain management,  CRM, financial management and  Project Management. A well implemented ERP solution will improve the efficiency of the enterprise, reduce money tied up in stock/work in progress, and run a Just in Time inventory system (BBC, 2005). Building automated system (BA) Building automation  describes the functionality provided by the control system of a building. A building automation system (BAS) is an example of a  distributed control system. The control system is a computerized, intelligent  network  of electronic devices, designed to monitor and control the mechanical and lighting systems in a building (Redlein, Alexander, 2004). BAS core functionality keeps the building climate within a specified range, provides lighting based on an occupancy schedule, and monitors system performance and device failures and provides email and/or text notifications to building engineering staff. The BAS functionality reduces building energy and maintenance costs when compared to a non-controlled building. A building controlled by a BAS is often referred to as an intelligent building system (Daintree Networks, 2009). As it mentioned in the section 2.7 that in around 2002, affordable Internet access and the proliferation of broadband connections led to the emergence of powerful new facility management solutions. Leveraging portals and email, facilities management was embracing modern technology to improve communications and accountability (Nakayama, M. Sutcliffe, N. 2005). 2.10 The evolution of outsourcing in the FM market Companies have become more efficient at reducing costs, and this is sometimes difficult to do effectively through in-house facilities managers. They are often constrained by internal political pressures and vested interests, and often they lack the expertise to manage change. Change within a company is a major challenge to any chief executive. By outsourcing to professionals, the outsourcing company becomes the change agent and a company is able to re-engineer and reposition itself more quickly and efficiently says Jackson (1997). Figure 2.1 Trend in FM outsourcing Source: Holzhhauzen 1999:9 From traditional in-house facilities management, the trend moved towards contracting certain non-core competencies. It then developed into outsourcing non-core competencies to a number of outsourcing firms. The trend is now developing further to full facilities management, which takes the risk away form the customer and places it on the shoulders of a single vendor (Holzhhauzen 1999). Since the early 1990s FM has shows the tremendous growth, as different sectors and organizations are interested in control of operational efficiencies and cost. Now a day there is a trend in private companies to focus on the core competencies. So these companies are interested in adopting the outsourcing in order to increase the efficiency as well as output of a company (AMA Research, 2009). FM sector has shows tremendous success over the last 25 years. Many professional bodies are supporting the growing number of FM practitioners all over the world to establish this market as a worldwide brand. It has been controlled by the global network of FM educational providers who worked jointly with the professionals related to this field, they also have collaboration with the academic community which provides them with the unique and challenging ideas to develop this market. According to writer there is variety in the practice of FM but the main idea of its establishment remains the same which helps in maintaining its distinctiveness (Grimshaw, 2001). The back casting exercise provided an opportunity of reflecting on the short history of Facilities Management, charting its development and evolution. At the European Facilities Management Conference in Manchester (EFMC08) the vision of a new wave of Facilities Management was proposed in response to the context of post-industrial cities. A leading role for FM in urban sustainability was envisaged, with an emphasis on innovation and creativity, community based planning and open sourcing (EFMC, 2008). 1970s 1G Managed services, outsourcing Operational total facilities management, CAFM 1980s 2G Quality management, management agency Tactical benchmarking, FM processes, FIMS 1990s 3G Partnering, re-engineering processes, Strategic knowledge management, product innovation, sustainable facilities management 2000s 4G Business processes, open innovation, usability, Transformational service excellence, transformational outsourcing, As Facilities Management enters a fifth decade and, perhaps a fifth generation in the development of Facilities Management, what will the next generation be like? (EFMC, 2008). 2.10.1 Facilities management outsourcing trend in the world Europe is now the worlds biggest market for outsourcing. In 2004, Europe accounted for 49%